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JOSS:

Journal of Social Science

Department of Indian Studies, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Email: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION

India's fight for independence from British control included a substantial contribution

from the country's revolutionary movement (Griffiths, 2019). The trend began in the final

decades of the nineteenth century and persisted into the early decades of the twentieth. The

Indian Rebellion of 1857 served as an inspiration, as did the emergence of nationalism

elsewhere and the public's perception of British Imperial weakness during World War I.

Terrorism and bloodshed were hallmarks of the revolutionary movement. Its aim was the

Republican Association, sought to overthrow the British government through a violent

revolution. The revolutionary movement was not without its successes. In 1907, a group of

revolutionaries led by Madan Lal Dhingra assassinated Sir Curzon Wyllie, a British official

in London. In 1915, a group of revolutionaries led by (Bose & Sen-Den Han, 1934) attempted

including their ideologies, historical settings, motives, organizational structures, impacts, and

modes of collective resistance. The study's findings shed light on these factors, adding to our

knowledge of the fluidity of revolutionary movements and their capacity to effect profound

change in Indian society (Cohn, 1978).

This study aims to map the ideological scene of revolutionary movements in India,

analyzing historical contexts, understanding motivations, examining organizational

structures, assessing impact and influence (Rajan, 1969), and exploring forms of collective

resistance. By examining diverse ideological frameworks, contextualizing trends within

socio-political conditions, and investigating motivations, organizational structures, and forms

of resistance, this study seeks to provide insights into the revolutionary setting in India and

research. The study intends to thoroughly explore the ideological diversity, historical

contexts, motivations, organizational structures, impact and influence, and modes of

collective resistance among revolutionary impulses in India by combining these research

methodologies.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Numerous internal and external factors that inspired the younger generation are

responsible for the birth of revolutionary ideas in the final years of the 19th century and the

early years of the 20th century. The religious renaissance of the late 19th century, which was

accompanied by numerous international influences, stood out among these. Among these were

demographic, the Congress party failed to align with the tide of nationalism that was

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enveloping India by the 19th century's close. A cultural renaissance led to the revival of India's

ancient past, contributing to an invigorated respect for national traditions, strengthened by a

religious awakening and the rise of Hindu revivalism. Politics and religion merged, with most

revolutionary leaders of the era demonstrating deep religious convictions and a profound love

the Gita, inspiring a series of political and militant activities (Purushotham, 2021). His

teachings motivated the Chapekar brothers to form the Hindu Dharm Sanrakshini Sabha,

leading to the assassination of several British officers. In response to the sacrifice and

martyrdom of the Chapekar brothers, V.D. Savarkar established the Mitra Mela in Nasik in

1900, later transformed into the Abhinav Bharat Society in 1904 and relocated to Poona. The

society played an active role in organizing meetings, publishing materials, and celebrating

festivals. The revolutionary movement in Bengal found inspiration in Bankim Chandra

Chatterji's works and Swami Vivekananda's teachings, complemented by contributions from

Aurobindo Ghosh (Purushotham, 2021). In 1901, Pramathanath Mitra formed Anushilan

Samiti, joined by prominent figures such as Aurobindo Ghosh, C.R. Das, Barindra Ghosh, and

population (Maclean, 2016). External influences from international figures like Mazzini,

Garibaldi, and various Irish revolutionaries, alongside significant events like Japan's victory

over Russia in 1905, played a profound role in shaping the Indian revolutionary movement.

B.C. Pal regarded Mazzini as a major source of a new nationalism in India, while Annie Besant

drew parallels between Mazzini and Aurobindo, describing them as individuals of the same

mold. V.D. Savarkar even translated Mazzini’s autobiography into Marathi.

Early Developments

As revolutionary ideologies began to take root under these influences, the partition of

Bengal in 1905 served as a significant catalyst. Revolutionary groups saw through the façade

of administrative efficiency, recognizing the age-old tactics of "divide and rule" and

accidental bombing (Agrawal, 2008). This incident triggered a significant remark from Tilak,

who asserted that the advent of bomb usage in India had fundamentally altered the political

landscape. He urged the Indian government to respond with political reform rather than

repression.

During this period, Sachindranath Sanyal established the Anushilan Samiti at Benares

the act, citing religious scriptures to justify the attempted assassination. The proclamation

from the group asserted that religious texts such as the Gita, the Vedas, and the Quran called

for the elimination of the motherland's enemies, irrespective of their caste, creed, or color.

Following this, Bose and his associates planned a simultaneous uprising involving Indian

soldiers. However, the plan leaked prematurely, leading to the capture of most of the

revolutionaries. Bose managed to evade arrest and continued his revolutionary efforts in

Japan.

The repressive policies of the British government resulted in numerous conspiracy

cases, leading to the elimination of several revolutionaries. This brought about a temporary

pause in revolutionary activities. However, figures such as Gendalal Dixit of Mainpuri

Raj (Republican State) founded on principles of freedom and equality (Heehs, 1998). The

Ghadar spirit also spread to the Far East, with branches established in Japan, Hong Kong, and

Shanghai. With the onset of the Great War, Kabul became a refuge for leading rebels, where

Raja Mahendra Pratap established a provisional government of India, serving as its president

with Barkatullah as the prime minister.

Early Founts of Ideological Inspiration

The narratives, discourses, and public addresses of the revolutionaries during this era

demonstrate a conspicuous religious inclination, romanticist tendencies, and pronounced

emotionalism. Many firmly believed that political advocacy alone was insufficient and that

spiritual preparedness was essential for the populace to face imminent challenges (Singh,

solely on Hindu scriptures. Some initial revolutionaries expressed concern that Hindu rites

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might alienate potential Muslim supporters (Pattanaik, 2005). The stance of Hemchandra

Kanungo and his colleagues from Midnapore further reinforced the antireligious sentiments

among several revolutionaries. Intriguingly, among the first four martyrs, Satyendranath

Basu, Kanailal Dutta, and Khudiram Basu were skeptical of religion (Pattanaik, 2005).

The early revolutionaries pioneered the quest for a revolutionary ideology and a

strategic plan, drawing insights from both Indian history and the revolutionary events in other

nations (Mill, 1817). They did not advocate social reform per se but sought to dismantle long-

standing traditional customs. They rebelled against any factor that posed a barrier to the

advancement of the revolutionary movement. Their tendencies towards emotionalism and

romanticism could only be mitigated by the acknowledgment that revolution is a socially

dictated process, influenced by certain laws. This understanding emerged among the

revolutionaries following the impact of the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia.

Beginnings of a New Revolutionary Spirit

The global economic landscape experienced a severe downturn during the First World

affirmations failed to satisfy both the elite and the masses, who demanded concrete actions.

However, any hope harbored about British intentions was soon disillusioned with the

introduction of the Rowlatt Bill (Hutchins, 2015), designed to stifle freedom of speech and

political engagement (Iyengar, 2001). As the Defence of India Act was set to expire half a

year after the war's end, fears of revolutionary "terrorism" and the rise of Bolshevism drove

the British to arm the Indian administration with powers of preventive detention. All political

parties in India, including the Indian National Congress and moderates (Perumal &

Thandavan, 1985), strongly opposed this action. (Kibriya, 1999) responded by calling for

widespread demonstrations and strikes. As a result, on April 13, 1919, there was the infamous

Jallianwala Bagh massacre in Amritsar, which indirectly contributed to a considerable rise in

revolutionaries to refrain from violence for one year. The revolutionaries, in response, agreed

to suspend their activities. Young students, moved by Gandhi's call, abandoned their studies

to fully engage in the fight for freedom. The concurrent economic and labor crises further

intensified the struggle (Iyengar, 2001). However, the abrupt halt of the movement following

the Chauri Chaura incident led to deep disappointment among Gandhi's young followers.

Revolutionary movements have had a tremendous and transformational impact on

India's social, political, and cultural spheres, greatly influencing social change, legislative

reforms, and the restructuring of power relationships. Socially, these movements have

supported an inclusive, egalitarian, and just society. Movements like the Dalit Panthers and

Self-Respect Movement challenged the oppressive caste system, promoting rights and

representation for marginalized communities (Kaul, 2002). They encouraged socio-economic

mobility and stimulated awareness about structural inequalities, ushering in a sea change in

Indian society's attitude towards caste and class. Women's rights movements, particularly

post-independence, have instigated changes in traditional gender norms and catalyzed

legislation promoting women's empowerment and safety, influencing the status and roles of

recently, movements such as the Right to Information and Anti-Corruption Movements have

highlighted government transparency and accountability, prompting essential policy

modifications (Kaul, 2002). Culturally, revolutionary movements have influenced India's

artistic, intellectual, and religious landscapes. The Bhakti and Sufi movements, for instance,

left an indelible effect on Indian literature, music, and philosophy by questioning established

religious norms and advocating for a more individual and inclusive form of spiritual

expression. The Dravidian movement has also played an important role in the promotion and

celebration of regional distinctions such as language and culture.

One significant effect of these changes is a shift in the balance of power. The

destabilization of current power systems has historically resulted in power transfers toward

power shifts and policy reforms. They have contributed to social change by advocating for

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equality, justice, and representation, leading to more inclusive, democratic, and accountable

societal structures.

Forms of Collective Resistance in Revolutionary Movements

Revolutionary movements in India have utilized a vast array of strategies and methods

the Indian independence struggle, the recent Farmers' Protests against agricultural reforms,

and numerous other instances. These actions aim to communicate discontent, raise awareness,

and pressure authorities into making policy changes (Marshall, 1997). Strikes, both general

and specific, have been another popular form of collective resistance. Industrial workers,

miners, and even government employees have used strikes to protest against unfair wages,

poor working conditions, and unjust policies. For instance, the Railway Strike of 1974 was a

significant moment in Indian labor history.

Some revolutionary movements have resorted to armed struggle, particularly in regions

where state repression has been severe, or peaceful means have yielded little result. These

movements, such as the Naxalite movement or the separatist movements in Kashmir and the

Cultural activism involves using cultural forms like music, literature, theater, and art to

resist oppression, assert identity, and mobilize people. The IPTA (Indian People's Theatre

Association) during the freedom struggle and the Dalit Panthers' use of literature and poetry

to voice caste oppression are key examples. Movements such as the Chipko movement have

also used folklore and traditional songs to gather support and express dissent. The formation

of alternative institutions has been a significant strategy to challenge existing power structures

(Das, 1992). These may involve alternative governance structures, like the Gram Sabhas

(village assemblies), or alternative economic systems, like cooperatives. The creation of the

Khadi and Village Industries Commission as an alternative economic and development model

during the freedom struggle is a prime example of this form of resistance. Thus, through an

diversity, historical contexts, motivations, organizational structures, impact and influence,

and forms of collective resistance. Through an analytical and exploratory approach, combined

with descriptive, historical, and qualitative research methods, we have gained a

comprehensive understanding of these dynamic movements. The mapping of ideological

frameworks, contextualization of historical trends, examination of motivations, analysis of

organized people into groups, taking on established authorities, and called for radical reform.

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